Translating is not replacing each word with its counterpart in the other language. English and French do not carve up reality in the same way: they have different grammar, different images and different cultural references. To convey the meaning of a text, translators therefore rely on procedures: techniques with names and rules of use.
The most widely used classification comes from Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet (Stylistique comparée du français et de l'anglais, 1958). It distinguishes two families: direct procedures, when the two languages are close enough to follow the text closely, and oblique procedures, when you have to move away from it to stay faithful to the meaning. This page presents them one by one, with an example, and points to the blog articles that explore each of them.
1. Direct procedures: when languages are alike
Borrowing
The source-language word is kept as it is, often because the target language has no equivalent, or to keep some local colour.
baguette, déjà vu, savoir-faire (in an English text)
Calque
The structure of an expression is borrowed and each of its elements is translated.
skyscraper → gratte-ciel
Literal translation
Word-for-word gives a correct and natural sentence in the other language. It is the ideal case, and rarer than you might think.
The cat is on the table. → Le chat est sur la table.
2. Transposition and chassé-croisé
Transposition changes the grammatical category of a word without changing the meaning: a verb becomes a noun, an adverb becomes a verb…
after he came back → après son retour (verb → noun)
Chassé-croisé is a double transposition in which two elements swap roles. It is typical of verbs of motion: English puts the manner in the verb and the direction in the particle, French does the opposite.
He swam across the river. → Il a traversé la rivière à la nage.
3. Modulation
Modulation changes the point of view on the same reality: you say the same thing, but from another angle. It takes several forms: switching from active to passive, negating the opposite, changing the image…
It's not difficult. → C'est facile. (negation of the opposite)
4. Equivalence
Equivalence renders the same situation with an entirely different expression. It is the procedure for proverbs, idioms, set phrases and interjections, which are never translated word for word.
It's raining cats and dogs. → Il pleut des cordes. · Ouch! → Aïe !
5. Adaptation
Adaptation is needed when the reality referred to does not exist, or not in the same way, in the target culture: units of measurement, currencies, proper nouns, titles of works, historical references. Should you convert, explain or keep? The answer depends on the text and its reader.
He's six feet tall. → Il mesure 1,83 m.
6. Adjusting the text: expansion, collocations, register, typography
Beyond the main procedures, translators constantly adjust the length and tone of the text. French often needs more words than English (expansion), sometimes fewer (reduction). Words combine according to habits specific to each language (collocations), the level of language must be preserved (register), and punctuation follows other rules (typography).
the man at the window → l'homme qui se tenait à la fenêtre (expansion) · make a decision → prendre une décision (collocation)